1
00:00:02,639 --> 00:00:05,141
Nothingness.
2
00:00:05,143 --> 00:00:07,910
It is the beginning
3
00:00:07,912 --> 00:00:11,981
and the end of all creation.
4
00:00:11,983 --> 00:00:13,983
But what is it?
5
00:00:15,552 --> 00:00:17,720
Is empty space really empty?
6
00:00:19,423 --> 00:00:21,824
Or is it filled
with hidden forces...
7
00:00:22,526 --> 00:00:25,595
...forces that exploded
our Universe into existence...
8
00:00:27,030 --> 00:00:31,000
...or forces that could
destroy reality as we know it?
9
00:00:31,002 --> 00:00:33,636
What is nothing?
10
00:00:38,008 --> 00:00:42,645
Space, time, life itself.
11
00:00:44,815 --> 00:00:49,652
The secrets of the cosmos
lie through the wormhole.
12
00:00:49,654 --> 00:00:53,654
♪ Through the Wormhole 03x05 ♪
What is Nothing?
Original Air Date on June 27, 2012
13
00:00:53,679 --> 00:00:57,679
== sync, corrected by elderman ==
14
00:01:02,307 --> 00:01:05,309
The void.
15
00:01:05,311 --> 00:01:08,078
The Bible says it was the place
16
00:01:08,080 --> 00:01:12,516
from which God brought forth
the heavens and the earth.
17
00:01:12,518 --> 00:01:17,020
Scientists now have their
own version of that belief.
18
00:01:17,022 --> 00:01:20,157
They call it the Big Bang.
19
00:01:20,159 --> 00:01:25,229
But how can something come
from what appears to be nothing?
20
00:01:25,231 --> 00:01:28,398
Understanding
the true nature of nothingness
21
00:01:28,400 --> 00:01:31,201
is perhaps the deepest
and most-baffling conundrum
22
00:01:31,203 --> 00:01:33,337
in modern science.
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00:01:33,339 --> 00:01:36,106
It could explain
where the Universe came from
24
00:01:36,108 --> 00:01:38,475
and whether
everything we know and love
25
00:01:38,477 --> 00:01:42,279
could turn into nothing
once again.
26
00:01:47,485 --> 00:01:52,155
"In the beginning,
the earth was without form."
27
00:01:52,157 --> 00:01:54,124
When you were young,
28
00:01:54,126 --> 00:01:56,093
did you ever close your eyes
29
00:01:56,095 --> 00:01:59,096
and try to imagine
floating in total darkness,
30
00:01:59,098 --> 00:02:02,232
to experience absolute nothing?
31
00:02:02,234 --> 00:02:03,867
I did.
32
00:02:03,869 --> 00:02:06,703
And I always failed.
33
00:02:06,705 --> 00:02:08,071
No matter what,
34
00:02:08,073 --> 00:02:12,376
I could not rid this void
of the pulse of my heartbeat
35
00:02:12,378 --> 00:02:14,544
and the thoughts in my head.
36
00:02:14,546 --> 00:02:16,313
When I imagine,
37
00:02:16,315 --> 00:02:19,650
I can't help
but imagine something,
38
00:02:19,652 --> 00:02:22,052
not nothing.
39
00:02:30,795 --> 00:02:33,130
Slava Turyshev
is a NASA physicist
40
00:02:33,132 --> 00:02:36,433
who has always dreamed
of nothing
41
00:02:36,435 --> 00:02:40,137
and what nothing
might be like to visit.
42
00:02:44,642 --> 00:02:47,144
The town I was born in
43
00:02:47,146 --> 00:02:52,115
was just under the trajectory
rockets launched from Baikonur.
44
00:02:52,117 --> 00:02:54,284
It's a Russian launch site.
45
00:02:54,286 --> 00:02:58,522
So that actually
made a major impression on me.
46
00:02:58,524 --> 00:03:02,392
Slava spent
his childhood building rockets
47
00:03:02,394 --> 00:03:04,961
and yearned to one day ride one
48
00:03:04,963 --> 00:03:07,030
into the emptiness
of outer space.
49
00:03:18,176 --> 00:03:21,411
But fate had other plans.
50
00:03:21,413 --> 00:03:24,514
I wanted
to be on a space flight,
51
00:03:24,516 --> 00:03:27,751
and at one of those times
actually was training
52
00:03:27,753 --> 00:03:31,021
for the Russian space shuttle
back in late '90s,
53
00:03:31,023 --> 00:03:33,690
just before
the program was canceled.
54
00:03:33,692 --> 00:03:35,926
With no Russian shuttle,
55
00:03:35,928 --> 00:03:38,929
Slava lost his ticket
to outer space,
56
00:03:38,931 --> 00:03:40,831
but as a physicist,
57
00:03:40,833 --> 00:03:44,401
he discovered that the same
space that fills the heavens
58
00:03:44,403 --> 00:03:47,404
also exists everywhere on earth.
59
00:03:47,406 --> 00:03:50,273
It's just not empty down here.
60
00:03:50,275 --> 00:03:53,143
And exploring the fundamental
properties of space
61
00:03:53,145 --> 00:03:55,612
does not require
a billion-dollar rocket.
62
00:03:55,614 --> 00:03:58,849
In fact, all you need
is a bucket of water.
63
00:04:01,419 --> 00:04:03,987
This is actually
a very simple experiment.
64
00:04:03,989 --> 00:04:06,957
What I'll do, I'll put
some water in the bucket,
65
00:04:06,959 --> 00:04:11,361
and this experiment actually
was thought by Isaac Newton.
66
00:04:15,700 --> 00:04:17,200
The objective, of course,
67
00:04:17,202 --> 00:04:20,103
to see what's going on with the
water when we spin the bucket.
68
00:04:24,075 --> 00:04:28,678
So, let's spin it
very, very nice.
69
00:04:30,715 --> 00:04:32,649
So, stable.
70
00:04:32,651 --> 00:04:36,453
You can observe that the water
in the bucket is staying flat.
71
00:04:36,455 --> 00:04:38,622
And let's see what happens.
72
00:04:39,824 --> 00:04:42,392
Isaac Newton
thought that the water
73
00:04:42,394 --> 00:04:44,861
ought to spin
in lockstep with the bucket,
74
00:04:44,863 --> 00:04:47,230
just as we move
with the spinning earth.
75
00:04:47,232 --> 00:04:48,965
But the water does not move
76
00:04:48,967 --> 00:04:51,268
with the spinning bucket
at first.
77
00:04:51,270 --> 00:04:54,404
Eventually, friction from
the inner wall of the bucket
78
00:04:54,406 --> 00:04:56,673
drags the water upwards.
79
00:04:58,376 --> 00:05:00,277
So, you can see
80
00:05:00,279 --> 00:05:04,247
that the water is slowly
going upwards in the bucket.
81
00:05:04,249 --> 00:05:07,651
But in the first moments after
the bucket is set in motion,
82
00:05:07,653 --> 00:05:10,720
the water stays still.
83
00:05:10,722 --> 00:05:15,025
Newton realized there must be
something gluing the water
84
00:05:15,027 --> 00:05:17,661
to the larger world around it.
85
00:05:17,663 --> 00:05:21,898
He thought that glue
must be space itself,
86
00:05:21,900 --> 00:05:26,002
which exists all around
and inside the bucket.
87
00:05:26,004 --> 00:05:29,306
Indeed, we cannot assume
that space is nothing.
88
00:05:29,308 --> 00:05:30,540
There is something,
89
00:05:30,542 --> 00:05:34,177
and that something
influences how matter moves.
90
00:05:34,179 --> 00:05:36,079
Newton could not explain
91
00:05:36,081 --> 00:05:39,749
how the nothingness of space
was somehow something.
92
00:05:39,751 --> 00:05:42,853
But in 1915, Albert Einstein's
93
00:05:42,855 --> 00:05:46,122
revolutionary Theory
of General Relativity
94
00:05:46,124 --> 00:05:49,926
showed that Newton's idea
was fundamentally right.
95
00:05:49,928 --> 00:05:55,365
Space or, as he reformulated it,
Space-Time
96
00:05:55,367 --> 00:05:57,200
is a bendable fabric
97
00:05:57,202 --> 00:06:01,271
into of which all the matter
in the Universe is woven.
98
00:06:08,913 --> 00:06:11,948
The space that fills
every corner of our Universe
99
00:06:11,950 --> 00:06:15,819
plays a constant game of tug of
war with all the things in it,
100
00:06:15,821 --> 00:06:20,790
be they planets, water in
a bucket, or a stack of papers.
101
00:06:20,792 --> 00:06:23,393
So if empty space
is not nothing,
102
00:06:23,395 --> 00:06:26,162
then what is it?
103
00:06:26,164 --> 00:06:28,932
Frank Close
is a particle physicist.
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00:06:28,934 --> 00:06:32,502
He's learned
that the power of empty space
105
00:06:32,504 --> 00:06:34,804
should never be underestimated.
106
00:06:34,806 --> 00:06:37,440
Hi, Andrew.
Hi, Frank.
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00:06:37,442 --> 00:06:40,410
So, it's a metal drum,
108
00:06:40,412 --> 00:06:43,813
and you can make it collapse
by doing nothing.
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00:06:43,815 --> 00:06:45,315
That's rig.
110
00:06:45,317 --> 00:06:46,816
We're gonna use
the power of nothing.
111
00:06:46,818 --> 00:06:48,418
So,
this is pretty dramatic.
112
00:06:48,420 --> 00:06:50,020
I better
put this on, right?
113
00:06:50,022 --> 00:06:51,054
Guess we had, yeah.
114
00:06:51,056 --> 00:06:52,722
Uh-huh.
And what else do I do?
115
00:06:52,724 --> 00:06:54,925
So, if you just switch
on the pump for me.
116
00:06:54,927 --> 00:06:56,393
Okay.
117
00:07:05,637 --> 00:07:06,636
Whew!
118
00:07:10,542 --> 00:07:11,541
Wow.
119
00:07:11,543 --> 00:07:12,776
The power of nothing.
120
00:07:12,778 --> 00:07:16,613
We took all of the air out
of the inside of this drum.
121
00:07:16,615 --> 00:07:18,682
The atmosphere
on the outside
122
00:07:18,684 --> 00:07:21,952
was making a
10-tons-every-square-meter force
123
00:07:21,954 --> 00:07:25,822
on that drum -- far too strong
for the metal to resist.
124
00:07:25,824 --> 00:07:27,457
Collapse.
125
00:07:27,459 --> 00:07:29,259
So, nothing on the inside.
126
00:07:29,261 --> 00:07:30,860
10 or 20 tons
on the outside.
127
00:07:30,862 --> 00:07:31,861
Bingo!
128
00:07:33,231 --> 00:07:35,332
In his quest to understand
129
00:07:35,334 --> 00:07:37,367
the fundamental
forces of nature,
130
00:07:37,369 --> 00:07:40,236
Frank has discovered
that empty space can do far more
131
00:07:40,238 --> 00:07:43,373
than cause solid matter
to implode.
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00:07:43,375 --> 00:07:47,143
He thinks it is interfering
with everything matter does.
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00:07:47,145 --> 00:07:48,678
In the 19th century,
134
00:07:48,680 --> 00:07:51,014
they thought
if you take all the air out,
135
00:07:51,016 --> 00:07:53,783
what you're left with
is a genuinely empty vacuum.
136
00:07:53,785 --> 00:07:55,919
And that is how
it could have stayed
137
00:07:55,921 --> 00:07:59,055
except that we then discovered
the idea of Quantum Theory.
138
00:07:59,057 --> 00:08:02,959
And one of the great mysteries
underlying Quantum Theory
139
00:08:02,961 --> 00:08:05,428
is that at an instant in time,
140
00:08:05,430 --> 00:08:08,698
you cannot be absolutely sure
how much energy there is.
141
00:08:08,700 --> 00:08:11,768
Energy can be borrowed
or exchanged around
142
00:08:11,770 --> 00:08:13,803
on very short time scales.
143
00:08:13,805 --> 00:08:15,805
So, in modern Quantum Theory,
144
00:08:15,807 --> 00:08:18,608
the vacuum
is a very violent place,
145
00:08:18,610 --> 00:08:19,876
even though you and I,
146
00:08:19,878 --> 00:08:22,112
day-to-day,
aren't aware of that fact.
147
00:08:22,114 --> 00:08:26,182
Empty space
is a froth of bubbling energy,
148
00:08:26,184 --> 00:08:28,518
like molten metal.
149
00:08:28,520 --> 00:08:30,620
And Frank and his fellow
particle physicists
150
00:08:30,622 --> 00:08:33,423
now have proof that this energy
151
00:08:33,425 --> 00:08:36,026
shields us
from seeing the true strength
152
00:08:36,028 --> 00:08:38,828
of the fundamental forces
of the Universe --
153
00:08:38,830 --> 00:08:41,531
forces like
the electrical repulsion
154
00:08:41,533 --> 00:08:43,333
between charged particles.
155
00:08:43,335 --> 00:08:45,869
So, we imagine
an electron sitting here,
156
00:08:45,871 --> 00:08:49,105
spreading out its electrical
tentacles through space,
157
00:08:49,107 --> 00:08:51,641
and I got another electron here
that I will use
158
00:08:51,643 --> 00:08:54,210
and I'll measure
the force between them,
159
00:08:54,212 --> 00:08:55,679
and the closer it gets,
160
00:08:55,681 --> 00:08:57,914
the force will rise
more and more.
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00:08:57,916 --> 00:09:01,351
But we now know,
because of the Quantum Theory,
162
00:09:01,353 --> 00:09:03,420
is that that little electron
sitting there
163
00:09:03,422 --> 00:09:05,655
is actually not isolated.
164
00:09:05,657 --> 00:09:09,693
It is surrounded
by the quantum vacuum.
165
00:09:09,695 --> 00:09:13,163
So, it's an electron
in a shroud.
166
00:09:13,165 --> 00:09:17,701
And that shroud reduces the full
impact of its electrical force.
167
00:09:17,703 --> 00:09:20,003
The same thing is true
of this other electron.
168
00:09:20,005 --> 00:09:22,172
Frank believes
169
00:09:22,174 --> 00:09:25,208
that all historical measurements
of the electrical force
170
00:09:25,210 --> 00:09:29,212
are inaccurate
because of these energy shrouds.
171
00:09:29,214 --> 00:09:31,381
But now atom smashers,
172
00:09:31,383 --> 00:09:34,384
like the Large Hadron Collider
in Geneva, Switzerland,
173
00:09:34,386 --> 00:09:36,653
can tell the full story.
174
00:09:36,655 --> 00:09:39,222
Here,
subatomic particles collide
175
00:09:39,224 --> 00:09:43,393
at more than
670 million miles per hour.
176
00:09:43,395 --> 00:09:46,129
They get so close to one another
177
00:09:46,131 --> 00:09:49,432
that they finally
pierce the shroud.
178
00:09:52,036 --> 00:09:55,138
But eventually the clouds
get inside each other,
179
00:09:55,140 --> 00:09:57,574
and that's when
it gets interesting,
180
00:09:57,576 --> 00:10:00,443
and the clouds then
are so disbursed around,
181
00:10:00,445 --> 00:10:03,046
we at last see the bare electron
182
00:10:03,048 --> 00:10:04,914
acting on
the other bare electron.
183
00:10:04,916 --> 00:10:07,150
And that's when we discover
that the force
184
00:10:07,152 --> 00:10:09,619
is much more dramatic
than we'd thought before.
185
00:10:11,055 --> 00:10:13,189
Just like protective eyewear
186
00:10:13,191 --> 00:10:16,092
that shields a welder
from dangerously intense light,
187
00:10:16,094 --> 00:10:19,496
Frank believes
that empty space itself
188
00:10:19,498 --> 00:10:20,930
is insulating the Universe
189
00:10:20,932 --> 00:10:25,769
from the true intensity
of the forces of nature.
190
00:10:25,771 --> 00:10:29,539
If it was possible to turn off
that cloak around the electron,
191
00:10:29,541 --> 00:10:32,909
you'd have turned off all
of the effects of the vacuum,
192
00:10:32,911 --> 00:10:35,245
and you would actually,
at the same time,
193
00:10:35,247 --> 00:10:36,946
have destroyed the Universe.
194
00:10:36,948 --> 00:10:38,448
Because all structure --
195
00:10:38,450 --> 00:10:40,917
the existence
of atoms and molecules --
196
00:10:40,919 --> 00:10:44,154
could not be if it wasn't
for the Quantum Theory.
197
00:10:44,156 --> 00:10:48,992
Without the dampening energy
buzzing around in the vacuum,
198
00:10:48,994 --> 00:10:53,029
the fundamental forces of nature
would run out of control.
199
00:10:53,031 --> 00:10:56,666
Our entire Universe
would break apart.
200
00:10:56,668 --> 00:11:00,203
But that is only
one side of the story.
201
00:11:00,205 --> 00:11:04,340
Because locked inside
this dampening shroud,
202
00:11:04,342 --> 00:11:06,910
there should be enough energy
to trigger an explosion
203
00:11:06,912 --> 00:11:10,847
deadlier than anything
we have ever known.
204
00:11:10,849 --> 00:11:16,553
Empty space might be
a powder keg waiting to explode.
205
00:11:20,474 --> 00:11:23,909
It might surprise you to know
that our best theory
206
00:11:23,911 --> 00:11:27,780
of how the Universe works
down at the microscopic level --
207
00:11:27,782 --> 00:11:29,815
the Theory
of Quantum Mechanics --
208
00:11:29,817 --> 00:11:34,520
also predicts
empty space has enough energy
209
00:11:34,522 --> 00:11:37,890
to boil the Universe
out of existence.
210
00:11:39,526 --> 00:11:42,061
But it doesn't.
211
00:11:42,063 --> 00:11:46,165
Something must be keeping
nothing in check.
212
00:11:46,167 --> 00:11:48,133
Question is...
213
00:11:48,135 --> 00:11:49,835
what?
214
00:11:54,307 --> 00:11:57,910
Neal Weiner
is a theoretical physicist
215
00:11:57,912 --> 00:12:00,045
at New York University.
216
00:12:00,047 --> 00:12:02,948
He studies the showers
of subatomic particles
217
00:12:02,950 --> 00:12:06,318
produced by atom smashers
like the LHC in Geneva
218
00:12:06,320 --> 00:12:09,922
and the Tevatron in Chicago.
219
00:12:09,924 --> 00:12:13,025
So, suppose
that you take these two rocks
220
00:12:13,027 --> 00:12:14,793
and you think of them
as protons.
221
00:12:14,795 --> 00:12:17,329
You collide them together
from opposite directions,
222
00:12:17,331 --> 00:12:18,531
and when you do that,
223
00:12:18,533 --> 00:12:20,399
you have enough energy
in the collision
224
00:12:20,401 --> 00:12:22,167
that you can
actually make particles
225
00:12:22,169 --> 00:12:23,502
that you would never think of
226
00:12:23,504 --> 00:12:25,437
as being part
of the individual protons.
227
00:12:25,439 --> 00:12:28,407
My job is to try to make sense
of what they find
228
00:12:28,409 --> 00:12:31,410
when they've collided
these particles together.
229
00:12:31,412 --> 00:12:34,213
But to understand the shrapnel
230
00:12:34,215 --> 00:12:37,216
flying out of
these subatomic explosions,
231
00:12:37,218 --> 00:12:41,654
Neal must look at the Universe
in a way that seems strange.
232
00:12:41,656 --> 00:12:44,924
He must see the smallest
building blocks of solid matter
233
00:12:44,926 --> 00:12:48,127
as not solid at all.
234
00:12:48,129 --> 00:12:51,330
In the Quantum realm,
if you create particles,
235
00:12:51,332 --> 00:12:54,400
you're creating them in a state
that looks more like a wave
236
00:12:54,402 --> 00:12:55,968
than it does like a particle.
237
00:12:55,970 --> 00:12:57,937
Just like we have in a fountain,
238
00:12:57,939 --> 00:12:59,538
where you have water coming down
239
00:12:59,540 --> 00:13:02,508
and sourcing waves that then
spread out from a central point,
240
00:13:02,510 --> 00:13:04,443
in Quantum Mechanics,
when you source a particle,
241
00:13:04,445 --> 00:13:06,512
you have a wave that spreads out
from a central point,
242
00:13:06,514 --> 00:13:07,913
rather than
a particular particle
243
00:13:07,915 --> 00:13:09,949
going in any given direction.
244
00:13:11,518 --> 00:13:14,720
Just like the ripples
on the surface of a pond,
245
00:13:14,722 --> 00:13:16,555
a particle wave
will spread itself
246
00:13:16,557 --> 00:13:19,124
over the entire ocean of space,
247
00:13:19,126 --> 00:13:23,395
and that means that
at every point in the Universe,
248
00:13:23,397 --> 00:13:25,497
there exists ripples
249
00:13:25,499 --> 00:13:29,101
from trillions upon trillions
of particle waves.
250
00:13:29,103 --> 00:13:33,372
There is no such thing
as empty space.
251
00:13:33,374 --> 00:13:37,343
And the energy contained
in that great rippling ocean
252
00:13:37,345 --> 00:13:41,046
is causing
the Universe to expand.
253
00:13:41,048 --> 00:13:43,649
When you look at
the expansion of the Universe,
254
00:13:43,651 --> 00:13:46,652
you see galaxies, galaxy
clusters, all expanding away --
255
00:13:46,654 --> 00:13:48,854
everything flying away
from each other.
256
00:13:48,856 --> 00:13:52,558
And it turns out that the
Universe is not slowing down.
257
00:13:52,560 --> 00:13:54,793
The Universe is actually
speeding up its expansion.
258
00:13:54,795 --> 00:13:56,061
The Universe is accelerating.
259
00:13:56,063 --> 00:13:58,631
So the only way that we know
how to explain this
260
00:13:58,633 --> 00:14:01,700
is if there's something
like an energy density
261
00:14:01,702 --> 00:14:05,404
that is pervasive
in Space itself.
262
00:14:05,406 --> 00:14:06,772
If you have that,
263
00:14:06,774 --> 00:14:10,509
that's going to cause
the Universe to accelerate.
264
00:14:10,511 --> 00:14:13,746
Physicists call this
"dark energy."
265
00:14:13,748 --> 00:14:16,949
From the rate of expansion
of the Universe,
266
00:14:16,951 --> 00:14:20,753
they can measure how much of it
empty space contains.
267
00:14:20,755 --> 00:14:23,055
But when
they tallied that number
268
00:14:23,057 --> 00:14:26,558
against how much energy
empty space ought to have
269
00:14:26,560 --> 00:14:29,461
from all the particle waves
filling the Universe,
270
00:14:29,463 --> 00:14:31,697
there was a staggering mismatch.
271
00:14:31,699 --> 00:14:34,266
When you calculate
the amount of energy
272
00:14:34,268 --> 00:14:37,770
that there should be in empty
space from quantum effects,
273
00:14:37,772 --> 00:14:41,373
you get a number which is
10 to the 120 times larger
274
00:14:41,375 --> 00:14:43,075
than the number
that we actually observe
275
00:14:43,077 --> 00:14:45,310
from the expansion and the
acceleration of the Universe.
276
00:14:45,312 --> 00:14:47,713
And this is an enormous number.
277
00:14:47,715 --> 00:14:50,849
According to their calculations,
278
00:14:50,851 --> 00:14:54,253
there should be enough energy
in space itself
279
00:14:54,255 --> 00:14:57,856
to boil the Universe away.
280
00:14:57,858 --> 00:14:59,925
But we are still here.
281
00:14:59,927 --> 00:15:03,429
Neal and many of his colleagues
think they might know
282
00:15:03,431 --> 00:15:08,300
why such a big mismatch exists
between theory and observation.
283
00:15:08,302 --> 00:15:11,103
It could be
that most particle waves
284
00:15:11,105 --> 00:15:14,006
are canceling each other out.
285
00:15:14,008 --> 00:15:15,507
The cancelation of waves
286
00:15:15,509 --> 00:15:17,543
is a pretty easy phenomenon
to understand.
287
00:15:17,545 --> 00:15:19,611
You just simply imagine
you have one wave,
288
00:15:19,613 --> 00:15:21,914
which has peaks and troughs,
289
00:15:21,916 --> 00:15:24,483
and then you have another wave
that has peaks and troughs,
290
00:15:24,485 --> 00:15:25,784
and when those waves combine,
291
00:15:25,786 --> 00:15:27,986
if the peaks and troughs
are in the same place --
292
00:15:27,988 --> 00:15:30,522
if I have two peaks in the same
place -- they add together.
293
00:15:30,524 --> 00:15:32,791
If I have two troughs
in the same place,
294
00:15:32,793 --> 00:15:34,359
they add together negatively.
295
00:15:34,361 --> 00:15:36,361
But if I have
one peak and one trough,
296
00:15:36,363 --> 00:15:38,564
they cancel out,
and I'm left with nothing.
297
00:15:38,566 --> 00:15:40,132
And so this interference,
298
00:15:40,134 --> 00:15:42,501
this phenomenon
of how waves can cancel,
299
00:15:42,503 --> 00:15:44,002
carries over to particles.
300
00:15:44,004 --> 00:15:46,972
Neal thinks
there is a whole other set
301
00:15:46,974 --> 00:15:50,876
of as-yet-undetected particles
out in the Universe,
302
00:15:50,878 --> 00:15:52,244
each creating waves,
303
00:15:52,246 --> 00:15:55,714
which cancel out the waves
from the particles we know.
304
00:15:55,716 --> 00:15:59,685
It's an idea
known as supersymmetry --
305
00:15:59,687 --> 00:16:04,156
every particle
has a mirror-image partner.
306
00:16:04,158 --> 00:16:06,358
The fact that my Universe
allows electrons
307
00:16:06,360 --> 00:16:09,661
means that I should have the
possibility of creating selectrons.
308
00:16:09,663 --> 00:16:12,598
And if I have quarks,
I should have squarks.
309
00:16:12,600 --> 00:16:16,468
And Neal's supersymmetric
partner should be...
310
00:16:16,470 --> 00:16:19,171
Sneal.
311
00:16:19,173 --> 00:16:22,040
If you're in New York,
you're either a lawyer,
312
00:16:22,042 --> 00:16:25,477
you're in finance, or you're
an actor, and I can't act.
313
00:16:25,479 --> 00:16:27,679
But finding Sneal
314
00:16:27,681 --> 00:16:30,783
or any other supersymmetric
particle wave
315
00:16:30,785 --> 00:16:33,285
is a frustrating task.
316
00:16:33,287 --> 00:16:34,720
You can look for them directly.
317
00:16:34,722 --> 00:16:36,155
You can look for them
indirectly.
318
00:16:36,157 --> 00:16:38,223
I have all sorts of ways
to look for supersymmetry.
319
00:16:38,225 --> 00:16:39,691
But up to this point,
320
00:16:39,693 --> 00:16:42,694
it's done an excellent job
of hiding from us,
321
00:16:42,696 --> 00:16:45,197
so either we're about to find it
322
00:16:45,199 --> 00:16:48,467
or I think a lot of us are
gonna say it's just not there.
323
00:16:51,271 --> 00:16:56,975
The LHC has so far seen no sign
of supersymmetric particles.
324
00:16:56,977 --> 00:16:59,244
If they do not exist,
325
00:16:59,246 --> 00:17:01,780
scientists will be left
with a baffling predicament --
326
00:17:01,782 --> 00:17:05,017
explaining why
the energy of empty space
327
00:17:05,019 --> 00:17:08,120
is not tearing
our Universe to shreds.
328
00:17:08,122 --> 00:17:10,088
But other scientists believe
329
00:17:10,090 --> 00:17:15,060
a cataclysmic explosion
of nothing is inevitable.
330
00:17:15,062 --> 00:17:18,697
And one has worked out
331
00:17:18,699 --> 00:17:20,465
when it might happen.
332
00:17:25,638 --> 00:17:26,505
And one has worked out
333
00:17:27,260 --> 00:17:30,763
Empty space fills our cosmos
334
00:17:30,765 --> 00:17:34,193
like a great ocean
of nothingness.
335
00:17:34,195 --> 00:17:36,429
But the still waters
of the Universe
336
00:17:36,431 --> 00:17:39,131
may not be tranquil for long.
337
00:17:39,133 --> 00:17:41,834
As one scientist sees it,
338
00:17:41,836 --> 00:17:44,303
a storm may be brewing.
339
00:17:46,306 --> 00:17:50,409
Max Tegmark
is a cosmologist at M.I.T.
340
00:17:50,411 --> 00:17:54,580
Do not let his relaxed charm
fool you.
341
00:17:54,582 --> 00:17:57,183
He is deeply troubled.
342
00:17:57,185 --> 00:17:59,018
What is on his mind
343
00:17:59,020 --> 00:18:03,789
is nothing other than
the future of empty space.
344
00:18:03,791 --> 00:18:08,894
Space itself seems just
imminently stable and permanent,
345
00:18:08,896 --> 00:18:10,830
just like these golf balls here.
346
00:18:10,832 --> 00:18:14,834
Been hitting these around
for quite a while now,
347
00:18:14,836 --> 00:18:17,136
and they always look the same
afterwards,
348
00:18:17,138 --> 00:18:22,108
but how can I be really, really
sure that stuff is stable?
349
00:18:32,152 --> 00:18:36,622
Just like the golf ball changed
its state into a cloud of dust,
350
00:18:36,624 --> 00:18:39,091
could space itself
somehow change its state
351
00:18:39,093 --> 00:18:40,459
into something else?
352
00:18:40,461 --> 00:18:44,864
A rapid decay of space
into a different state
353
00:18:44,866 --> 00:18:47,400
may sound highly unlikely,
354
00:18:47,402 --> 00:18:49,402
but it is not without precedent.
355
00:18:52,005 --> 00:18:55,074
13.7 billion years ago,
356
00:18:55,076 --> 00:18:57,676
the Universe shifted
its fundamental properties
357
00:18:57,678 --> 00:19:00,246
and its temperature plummeted.
358
00:19:00,248 --> 00:19:04,350
Physicists call this
the Big Bang.
359
00:19:04,352 --> 00:19:06,519
And through Max's eyes,
360
00:19:06,521 --> 00:19:08,387
there was something fishy
about it.
361
00:19:12,126 --> 00:19:13,959
I pretend I'm a fish.
362
00:19:13,961 --> 00:19:16,529
I've spent my whole life
in the ocean,
363
00:19:16,531 --> 00:19:20,399
and I think of water
as just empty space,
364
00:19:20,401 --> 00:19:21,634
'cause that's all I know.
365
00:19:21,636 --> 00:19:22,935
And then one day,
366
00:19:22,937 --> 00:19:25,671
I realize that this emptiness
is actually a substance.
367
00:19:25,673 --> 00:19:28,541
And I am an interested
and curious fish,
368
00:19:28,543 --> 00:19:31,710
so I figure out in addition to
the liquid water, which I'm in,
369
00:19:31,712 --> 00:19:35,781
there is this solid phase --
ice -- and there's steam.
370
00:19:35,783 --> 00:19:39,018
And then I would start worrying
about whether one day, you know,
371
00:19:39,020 --> 00:19:40,953
my water might freeze
and I might die.
372
00:19:40,955 --> 00:19:43,489
And in exactly the same way
we've looked at our space,
373
00:19:43,491 --> 00:19:46,826
realized that it, too,
seems to be able to freeze
374
00:19:46,828 --> 00:19:48,027
and kill us all.
375
00:19:54,901 --> 00:19:56,669
Max thinks the Big Bang
376
00:19:56,671 --> 00:20:00,439
was not the last cosmic freeze
our Universe will experience,
377
00:20:00,441 --> 00:20:04,043
and his proof
lies in the mind-bending science
378
00:20:04,045 --> 00:20:05,945
of Quantum Mechanics,
379
00:20:05,947 --> 00:20:10,783
where nothing is fixed
and nothing can last forever.
380
00:20:10,785 --> 00:20:12,885
Quantum Mechanics
tells you that a particle
381
00:20:12,887 --> 00:20:15,387
can never be perfectly still
382
00:20:15,389 --> 00:20:17,056
in a known position.
383
00:20:17,991 --> 00:20:19,725
And Quantum Mechanics
tells you that
384
00:20:19,727 --> 00:20:21,594
not just about little things
like atoms,
385
00:20:21,596 --> 00:20:23,596
but also about big things
that are made of atoms,
386
00:20:23,598 --> 00:20:24,763
like this golf ball.
387
00:20:24,765 --> 00:20:29,602
Which means nothing
is completely stable.
388
00:20:29,604 --> 00:20:32,805
This quantum jiggling of things
will eventually,
389
00:20:32,807 --> 00:20:35,341
if I were to stand here
long enough,
390
00:20:35,343 --> 00:20:39,011
cause the golf ball to just
randomly go up a little bit,
391
00:20:39,013 --> 00:20:41,714
then fall down
into a lower energy state.
392
00:20:42,849 --> 00:20:46,385
Left alone on the tee,
there was a very slight chance
393
00:20:46,387 --> 00:20:49,155
this golf ball
will tunnel through space
394
00:20:49,157 --> 00:20:51,690
and materialize
closer to the ground,
395
00:20:51,692 --> 00:20:53,792
where its energy is lower.
396
00:20:53,794 --> 00:20:56,395
When an object
tunnels through space,
397
00:20:56,397 --> 00:20:58,898
it can end up
practically anywhere,
398
00:20:58,900 --> 00:21:02,234
as long as its energy is lower.
399
00:21:02,236 --> 00:21:04,770
It could even tunnel
into the tin cup --
400
00:21:04,772 --> 00:21:08,574
a perfect hole-in-one
without even swinging.
401
00:21:08,576 --> 00:21:12,144
But this phenomenon could be
bad news for the Universe.
402
00:21:13,680 --> 00:21:18,684
We physicists have found pretty
good evidence that space itself
403
00:21:18,686 --> 00:21:21,053
can be in several different
energy states --
404
00:21:21,055 --> 00:21:23,822
lower, medium, higher.
405
00:21:23,824 --> 00:21:25,758
And we also have
good reason to believe
406
00:21:25,760 --> 00:21:28,394
that our space used to be
in a much higher energy state
407
00:21:28,396 --> 00:21:30,829
in the early Universe,
408
00:21:30,831 --> 00:21:33,332
in which even the kinds
of particles that could exist
409
00:21:33,334 --> 00:21:34,466
were different.
410
00:21:36,236 --> 00:21:39,805
Now, this early Universe,
which gave us our Big Bang,
411
00:21:39,807 --> 00:21:42,441
was unstable
and very quickly decayed
412
00:21:42,443 --> 00:21:45,711
into a lower energy state
that we inhabit today,
413
00:21:45,713 --> 00:21:48,981
with this peaceful, very nice,
and inhabitable Space
414
00:21:48,983 --> 00:21:52,251
which contains our kinds of
particles that we're made of.
415
00:21:52,253 --> 00:21:54,753
But we've also measured
416
00:21:54,755 --> 00:21:57,723
that there must be
an even lower state,
417
00:21:57,725 --> 00:22:01,527
because our empty space,
as we call it, isn't empty.
418
00:22:01,529 --> 00:22:03,796
It has mass, and as such,
419
00:22:03,798 --> 00:22:06,932
should be able to decay...
420
00:22:06,934 --> 00:22:09,668
into an even lower energy state,
421
00:22:09,670 --> 00:22:14,373
where our kinds of particles
aren't allowed to exist.
422
00:22:14,375 --> 00:22:16,775
And since I'm made
out of that kind of particles,
423
00:22:16,777 --> 00:22:18,544
that would be a bit of a bummer
for me.
424
00:22:18,546 --> 00:22:22,281
When this sudden decay in the
energy of empty space happens,
425
00:22:22,283 --> 00:22:24,450
a blast
of destructive nothingness
426
00:22:24,452 --> 00:22:28,254
will spread through the Universe
at the speed of light.
427
00:22:28,256 --> 00:22:31,357
We will have
no way to see it coming.
428
00:22:34,094 --> 00:22:35,361
It's inevitable.
429
00:22:36,863 --> 00:22:41,900
What's very unclear, though,
is how long it's gonna last.
430
00:22:41,902 --> 00:22:44,903
Some things are a lot more
stable than others, you know?
431
00:22:44,905 --> 00:22:49,942
A uranium atom will last for
billions and billions of years,
432
00:22:49,944 --> 00:22:53,412
whereas, say, a Cesium-137 atom
433
00:22:53,414 --> 00:22:56,348
that leaked
out of a nuclear reactor
434
00:22:56,350 --> 00:22:58,984
is gonna fall apart
much quicker,
435
00:22:58,986 --> 00:23:00,953
making it more dangerous.
436
00:23:00,955 --> 00:23:03,689
And then this Universe
we're in --
437
00:23:03,691 --> 00:23:06,725
you know, we've been here
for almost 14 billion years,
438
00:23:06,727 --> 00:23:08,994
but that doesn't mean
it's gonna be around forever.
439
00:23:11,031 --> 00:23:13,165
On the conservative side,
440
00:23:13,167 --> 00:23:17,002
Max thinks we could have
20 billion years left,
441
00:23:17,004 --> 00:23:19,371
but that depends on
supersymmetry particles
442
00:23:19,373 --> 00:23:21,674
actually existing --
443
00:23:21,676 --> 00:23:24,076
the same particles Neal Weiner
is hoping to see
444
00:23:24,078 --> 00:23:29,548
and the LHC
has so far failed to find.
445
00:23:29,550 --> 00:23:32,985
Without supersymmetry
to stabilize empty space,
446
00:23:32,987 --> 00:23:36,488
it could all end
in just one billion years --
447
00:23:36,490 --> 00:23:38,791
the blink of a cosmic eye.
448
00:23:42,495 --> 00:23:44,430
I'm just laughing because...
449
00:23:47,000 --> 00:23:49,768
...at the end of
"Life of Brian,"
450
00:23:49,770 --> 00:23:53,572
one of my favorite
Monty Python movies, they say,
451
00:23:53,574 --> 00:23:56,909
"We come from nothing.
We go back to nothing.
452
00:23:56,911 --> 00:23:59,144
What have we lost?
Nothing!"
453
00:24:02,582 --> 00:24:07,286
Nothing could be the beginning
and the end of the Universe,
454
00:24:07,288 --> 00:24:11,423
but there's another way
of looking at nothing.
455
00:24:11,425 --> 00:24:15,661
The Universe
could be a giant bubble.
456
00:24:15,663 --> 00:24:18,931
Everything that is...something
457
00:24:18,933 --> 00:24:20,833
fits on the surface.
458
00:24:20,835 --> 00:24:25,504
And the inside
is just a waste of space.
459
00:24:28,816 --> 00:24:32,119
When we look at the twinkling
starlight in the night sky,
460
00:24:32,852 --> 00:24:35,786
it's hard to understand
the vast distances
461
00:24:35,788 --> 00:24:38,355
that separate us
from those stars --
462
00:24:38,357 --> 00:24:43,260
the trillions upon trillions
of miles of emptiness.
463
00:24:43,262 --> 00:24:46,497
But that's not the way
the ancients saw it.
464
00:24:46,499 --> 00:24:50,267
To them, the stars
were just points of light
465
00:24:50,269 --> 00:24:53,971
on a black shell
that surrounded the Earth.
466
00:24:53,973 --> 00:24:57,241
Outer space did not exist.
467
00:24:57,243 --> 00:24:59,043
Now some bold thinkers
468
00:24:59,045 --> 00:25:02,746
are embracing this period
of this idea again --
469
00:25:02,748 --> 00:25:07,151
a thousand years
after the idea was abandoned.
470
00:25:09,587 --> 00:25:13,457
Gerard 't Hooft won the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1999
471
00:25:13,459 --> 00:25:17,094
for his work in establishing
the standard model --
472
00:25:17,096 --> 00:25:22,066
the basic foundation
of particle physics today.
473
00:25:22,068 --> 00:25:26,437
You could call him one
of the kings of modern physics.
474
00:25:26,439 --> 00:25:30,474
But you could also call him
high lord of nothing.
475
00:25:30,476 --> 00:25:34,044
Well, almost nothing.
476
00:25:34,046 --> 00:25:39,083
Because this barren rock
is his own private asteroid
477
00:25:39,085 --> 00:25:42,986
floating 100 million miles
from Earth.
478
00:25:42,988 --> 00:25:44,922
The international
astronomical union
479
00:25:44,924 --> 00:25:49,393
had decided to name the asteroid
"9491 't Hooft."
480
00:25:51,329 --> 00:25:55,165
I was, of course, very flattered
and honored by the event,
481
00:25:55,167 --> 00:25:57,367
but one little thing struck me,
482
00:25:57,369 --> 00:26:01,438
and it was that they changed
the spelling of my last name.
483
00:26:01,440 --> 00:26:07,211
It now became "Thooft,"
with a capital "T"
484
00:26:07,213 --> 00:26:09,713
and then "hooft"
just spelled right after it,
485
00:26:09,715 --> 00:26:11,315
without apostrophe.
486
00:26:13,485 --> 00:26:16,553
Gerard planned revenge --
487
00:26:16,555 --> 00:26:18,555
a poetic revenge.
488
00:26:18,557 --> 00:26:23,794
I decided that the asteroid
would require a constitution,
489
00:26:23,796 --> 00:26:27,998
and one of the first items
in the constitution
490
00:26:28,000 --> 00:26:32,236
is that all future inhabitants
of this asteroid
491
00:26:32,238 --> 00:26:35,906
would have to live
without apostrophes.
492
00:26:35,908 --> 00:26:40,144
Anyone entering the territorial
zone of the asteroid
493
00:26:40,146 --> 00:26:42,212
with a laptop, for instance,
494
00:26:42,214 --> 00:26:45,516
that carries a key
with an apostrophe in it,
495
00:26:45,518 --> 00:26:48,418
that key of the laptop
would have to be removed.
496
00:26:48,420 --> 00:26:51,522
As King of his asteroid,
497
00:26:51,524 --> 00:26:55,092
Gerard is free
to ban apostrophes.
498
00:26:55,094 --> 00:26:59,696
But as a Nobel laureate,
he knows they still exist.
499
00:26:59,698 --> 00:27:04,201
In fact, Gerard believes
that anything that is something
500
00:27:04,203 --> 00:27:07,971
can never truly
be removed from the Universe.
501
00:27:07,973 --> 00:27:12,943
It's a principle called
the conservation of information.
502
00:27:12,945 --> 00:27:14,144
You might think
503
00:27:14,146 --> 00:27:15,946
that the information
people put in documents
504
00:27:15,948 --> 00:27:18,582
is completely lost
once it's like this,
505
00:27:18,584 --> 00:27:20,617
but actually that's not true.
506
00:27:20,619 --> 00:27:24,588
I could dig it up and I can try
to put all the pieces together.
507
00:27:24,590 --> 00:27:26,757
The information is still in it.
508
00:27:26,759 --> 00:27:31,829
Physicists like Gerard
believe anything in the Universe
509
00:27:31,831 --> 00:27:34,464
can be described
by a series of bits,
510
00:27:34,466 --> 00:27:37,234
or ones and zeros,
511
00:27:37,236 --> 00:27:42,306
whether it is a piece of paper,
a planet, or a star.
512
00:27:42,308 --> 00:27:44,041
But there is one place
in the cosmos
513
00:27:44,043 --> 00:27:46,677
where this theory
seems to fall apart --
514
00:27:46,679 --> 00:27:48,145
black holes --
515
00:27:48,147 --> 00:27:54,318
rapacious voids that pull in
everything that gets too close.
516
00:27:54,320 --> 00:27:56,553
The black hole is much better
517
00:27:56,555 --> 00:27:58,522
than any of these shredders
here.
518
00:27:58,524 --> 00:28:00,224
In a black hole,
519
00:28:00,226 --> 00:28:03,227
the information
is not only shredded,
520
00:28:03,229 --> 00:28:05,229
it completely disappears.
521
00:28:05,231 --> 00:28:07,731
In the 1970s,
522
00:28:07,733 --> 00:28:10,367
legendary cosmologist
Stephen Hawking
523
00:28:10,369 --> 00:28:13,537
argued that black holes
entirely remove objects
524
00:28:13,539 --> 00:28:15,272
from our visible Universe,
525
00:28:15,274 --> 00:28:19,776
and the information they swallow
is gone forever.
526
00:28:19,778 --> 00:28:22,713
It was a notion
that deeply troubled Gerard.
527
00:28:22,715 --> 00:28:24,114
And I said,
528
00:28:24,116 --> 00:28:28,452
"that doesn't fit with the view
we have about physics."
529
00:28:28,454 --> 00:28:31,688
From the point of view
of what we know about the atoms
530
00:28:31,690 --> 00:28:34,958
and what's inside an atom,
information doesn't go away.
531
00:28:34,960 --> 00:28:36,226
It can't.
532
00:28:36,228 --> 00:28:39,196
It would be against the laws
of physics that we know.
533
00:28:39,198 --> 00:28:42,132
Hawking stood his ground,
534
00:28:42,134 --> 00:28:44,534
and the two debated for years,
535
00:28:44,536 --> 00:28:49,072
until a brilliant insight
turned the tide.
536
00:28:49,074 --> 00:28:52,809
Gerard realized
that if 9491 Thooft
537
00:28:52,811 --> 00:28:54,544
ever fell into a black hole,
538
00:28:54,546 --> 00:28:57,881
it would not disappear
without a trace.
539
00:28:57,883 --> 00:29:01,318
It would ever so slightly
change the black hole.
540
00:29:01,320 --> 00:29:04,821
The black hole
would go into a different state,
541
00:29:04,823 --> 00:29:07,925
so the black hole
would not be the same black hole
542
00:29:07,927 --> 00:29:10,294
as it was before
it ate my asteroid.
543
00:29:10,296 --> 00:29:12,696
It would be
a different black hole.
544
00:29:12,698 --> 00:29:18,368
When a black hole
feeds on its prey, it grows,
545
00:29:18,370 --> 00:29:22,105
and so its surface area
gets slightly larger.
546
00:29:22,107 --> 00:29:24,808
And when Gerard calculated
exactly how much
547
00:29:24,810 --> 00:29:28,045
extra information could fit
onto this larger surface,
548
00:29:28,047 --> 00:29:30,714
he discovered
it was just enough to fit
549
00:29:30,716 --> 00:29:34,952
all the information contained
in the black hole's dinner.
550
00:29:36,554 --> 00:29:39,656
The amount of information
you could put in a black hole
551
00:29:39,658 --> 00:29:41,525
is very precisely fine
552
00:29:41,527 --> 00:29:44,962
and is proportional
to its surface area.
553
00:29:44,964 --> 00:29:48,265
It's not
what's inside the surface.
554
00:29:48,267 --> 00:29:50,467
It simply doesn't count.
555
00:29:50,469 --> 00:29:54,137
It's the surface area
that counts, not the volume.
556
00:29:54,139 --> 00:29:58,075
This means that
the entire information content
557
00:29:58,077 --> 00:30:00,444
of Gerard's doomed asteroid
558
00:30:00,446 --> 00:30:03,313
and everything else
devoured by the black hole
559
00:30:03,315 --> 00:30:06,683
is imprinted
across its surface area.
560
00:30:06,685 --> 00:30:09,886
And Gerard discovered
that this principle
561
00:30:09,888 --> 00:30:12,723
applies to more
than just black holes.
562
00:30:12,725 --> 00:30:15,292
In fact,
the information contained
563
00:30:15,294 --> 00:30:18,495
inside any three-dimensional
volume of space
564
00:30:18,497 --> 00:30:23,433
must fit onto
that volume's surface area.
565
00:30:23,435 --> 00:30:28,005
You see that the box
is covered by a grid,
566
00:30:28,007 --> 00:30:31,208
and the amount of information
no longer can be counted
567
00:30:31,210 --> 00:30:33,677
while looking
at the volume of the box,
568
00:30:33,679 --> 00:30:36,213
but by looking
at the surface of the box.
569
00:30:36,215 --> 00:30:41,251
On every side of this grid,
there's one bit of information.
570
00:30:41,253 --> 00:30:46,123
Think of a box
the size of the entire Universe.
571
00:30:46,125 --> 00:30:49,026
All of the information
contained inside
572
00:30:49,028 --> 00:30:51,828
fits neatly on a grid
on the surface.
573
00:30:51,830 --> 00:30:56,066
The total information content
of everything that ever was
574
00:30:56,068 --> 00:30:57,501
can be counted there.
575
00:30:57,503 --> 00:31:00,804
Compared with
how much space for information
576
00:31:00,806 --> 00:31:03,206
exists inside the box,
577
00:31:03,208 --> 00:31:05,375
it is practically
nothing at all.
578
00:31:08,846 --> 00:31:11,715
In principle, yes, you can --
579
00:31:11,717 --> 00:31:13,917
it should be possible
580
00:31:13,919 --> 00:31:16,520
to describe everything
happening in the Universe
581
00:31:16,522 --> 00:31:21,258
by concentrating
on a surface surrounding it.
582
00:31:22,660 --> 00:31:26,930
If he is correct -- and most
physicists now think he is --
583
00:31:26,932 --> 00:31:30,967
the Universe
is mostly a waste of space.
584
00:31:30,969 --> 00:31:33,236
Because where there is
no information,
585
00:31:33,238 --> 00:31:35,806
there is really...nothing.
586
00:31:37,141 --> 00:31:39,309
But this woman has taken
the concept of nothing
587
00:31:39,311 --> 00:31:41,311
one step further.
588
00:31:41,313 --> 00:31:46,750
In fact, she may have found
another Universe inside our own,
589
00:31:46,752 --> 00:31:49,753
made of absolutely nothing.
590
00:31:55,373 --> 00:32:00,176
If I close my eyes
and nothing makes a sound,
591
00:32:00,178 --> 00:32:04,080
how can I be sure
the world is really there?
592
00:32:04,082 --> 00:32:10,553
Or...if you can't see
or hear me, how --
593
00:32:10,555 --> 00:32:13,823
how do you know I really exist?
594
00:32:13,825 --> 00:32:17,227
The difference
between something and nothing
595
00:32:17,229 --> 00:32:20,263
could be a matter of perception.
596
00:32:29,874 --> 00:32:32,242
Katie Freese
is an astrophysicist
597
00:32:32,244 --> 00:32:33,710
with a competitive spirit.
598
00:32:35,379 --> 00:32:39,082
I think this stems
from my childhood,
599
00:32:39,084 --> 00:32:43,420
because we lived
on the corner of two blocks,
600
00:32:43,422 --> 00:32:45,989
and all the kids
came over to my house
601
00:32:45,991 --> 00:32:50,126
to play baseball and basketball
or whatever,
602
00:32:50,128 --> 00:32:51,461
except it was all boys,
603
00:32:51,463 --> 00:32:53,663
so I was always
playing with the boys.
604
00:32:53,665 --> 00:32:56,032
And as a physicist,
I'm still doing that.
605
00:32:56,034 --> 00:32:58,401
And so I think
that's where I developed
606
00:32:58,403 --> 00:33:02,705
this sense of competition
and thinking that it's fun.
607
00:33:02,707 --> 00:33:05,141
When she's not on the courts,
608
00:33:05,143 --> 00:33:07,477
Katie peers
into the heart of matter
609
00:33:07,479 --> 00:33:11,681
and tries to understand
what makes it solid.
610
00:33:13,751 --> 00:33:17,654
When we look at the world around
us, it seems to be really solid.
611
00:33:17,656 --> 00:33:20,590
It looks solid, it feels solid,
but it's not.
612
00:33:20,592 --> 00:33:24,160
This tennis ball feels solid,
613
00:33:24,162 --> 00:33:26,162
but when I cut it open...
614
00:33:28,466 --> 00:33:30,133
...it's empty --
615
00:33:30,135 --> 00:33:32,502
just like most of matter.
616
00:33:35,339 --> 00:33:37,974
So, if we think about
one grain of the sugar
617
00:33:37,976 --> 00:33:39,576
that's on my fingertip,
618
00:33:39,578 --> 00:33:42,512
and if that were equivalent
to the nucleus,
619
00:33:42,514 --> 00:33:45,014
then it would take
this entire big tennis court
620
00:33:45,016 --> 00:33:46,149
to make up the atom,
621
00:33:46,151 --> 00:33:47,851
and in between the sugar,
622
00:33:47,853 --> 00:33:50,620
the single grain
that makes the nucleus
623
00:33:50,622 --> 00:33:52,355
and this entire tennis court,
624
00:33:52,357 --> 00:33:53,990
there's absolutely nothing.
625
00:33:53,992 --> 00:33:56,025
It's empty.
626
00:33:58,062 --> 00:34:01,764
The solid world
around us is merely an illusion.
627
00:34:01,766 --> 00:34:03,666
What makes things feel solid
628
00:34:03,668 --> 00:34:06,536
is nothing more
than the repulsion of electrons
629
00:34:06,538 --> 00:34:09,706
that exist
on the outer shells of atoms.
630
00:34:09,708 --> 00:34:13,009
And if you
did not feel this force,
631
00:34:13,011 --> 00:34:17,680
you could pass
right through solid matter.
632
00:34:17,682 --> 00:34:19,415
In the past two decades,
633
00:34:19,417 --> 00:34:21,885
astronomers
have discovered light
634
00:34:21,887 --> 00:34:24,921
bending around
gargantuan invisible masses
635
00:34:24,923 --> 00:34:27,524
surrounding every galaxy.
636
00:34:27,526 --> 00:34:31,361
They believe these masses
are made of dark matter.
637
00:34:31,363 --> 00:34:32,795
They call it dark
638
00:34:32,797 --> 00:34:36,599
because we cannot see it,
feel it, or touch it.
639
00:34:36,601 --> 00:34:39,202
It passes right through
our solid world
640
00:34:39,204 --> 00:34:42,172
as if it was not there at all.
641
00:34:42,174 --> 00:34:43,740
As far as dark matter goes,
642
00:34:43,742 --> 00:34:46,442
we know that it does not have
electric charge.
643
00:34:46,444 --> 00:34:48,011
We would know.
644
00:34:48,013 --> 00:34:50,547
I mean, these things would be
bombarding you, and you'd know.
645
00:34:50,549 --> 00:34:52,815
There are probably billions
of dark-matter particles
646
00:34:52,817 --> 00:34:54,617
passing through
our bodies every second.
647
00:34:54,619 --> 00:34:57,220
Katie believes that dark matter
648
00:34:57,222 --> 00:35:00,657
is made up of particles
just as heavy as regular matter,
649
00:35:00,659 --> 00:35:02,625
but they are only affected
650
00:35:02,627 --> 00:35:05,828
by what scientists call
the weak force --
651
00:35:05,830 --> 00:35:09,766
a force so puny,
its effect is barely detectable
652
00:35:09,768 --> 00:35:12,936
by our most sophisticated
equipment.
653
00:35:12,938 --> 00:35:15,171
In my right hand,
I have a tennis racket,
654
00:35:15,173 --> 00:35:17,607
and in my left hand,
I have a glass of sugar,
655
00:35:17,609 --> 00:35:19,542
and we're gonna use these
as props
656
00:35:19,544 --> 00:35:22,412
to explain weak interactions.
657
00:35:23,514 --> 00:35:25,582
The strings are representing
regular matter
658
00:35:25,584 --> 00:35:27,383
with a lot of space
in between them,
659
00:35:27,385 --> 00:35:29,485
so when the grains of sugar
go through,
660
00:35:29,487 --> 00:35:31,354
most of them just pass
right on by
661
00:35:31,356 --> 00:35:34,457
without having
any interaction whatsoever.
662
00:35:34,459 --> 00:35:37,560
Katie believes that in one day,
663
00:35:37,562 --> 00:35:39,929
of the few billion particles
of dark matter
664
00:35:39,931 --> 00:35:41,431
that pass through your body,
665
00:35:41,433 --> 00:35:43,032
only two or three of them
666
00:35:43,034 --> 00:35:45,935
will ever interact
with the atoms inside you.
667
00:35:45,937 --> 00:35:48,137
And when they do,
668
00:35:48,139 --> 00:35:51,307
it is only through
the weak force.
669
00:35:51,309 --> 00:35:53,643
Highly sensitive experiments
around the world
670
00:35:53,645 --> 00:35:56,212
have been trying to detect
these rare interactions
671
00:35:56,214 --> 00:35:57,747
for over a decade,
672
00:35:57,749 --> 00:36:01,317
but the experiments
do not agree with one another.
673
00:36:01,319 --> 00:36:05,822
One of the experiments has been
seeing a signal for 10 years,
674
00:36:05,824 --> 00:36:09,325
and it's a statistically
very significant result.
675
00:36:09,327 --> 00:36:11,828
But the problem is that
some of the other experiments
676
00:36:11,830 --> 00:36:14,230
are in disagreement because
they're not seeing anything.
677
00:36:14,232 --> 00:36:16,833
The question is,
what's going on?
678
00:36:16,835 --> 00:36:18,801
As a scientist competing
679
00:36:18,803 --> 00:36:21,638
in one of the biggest
theoretical games in physics,
680
00:36:21,640 --> 00:36:25,908
Katie is beginning to worry
about an emerging possibility.
681
00:36:25,910 --> 00:36:30,046
Dark matter may not
even feel the weak force.
682
00:36:30,048 --> 00:36:31,648
What a horrible thought.
683
00:36:31,650 --> 00:36:34,784
Nobody said the dark matter
had to weakly interact,
684
00:36:34,786 --> 00:36:37,820
so then we really
have a problem.
685
00:36:37,822 --> 00:36:40,356
Then I don't know
how we're ever gonna detect it.
686
00:36:40,358 --> 00:36:43,126
How can we discover it?
687
00:36:43,128 --> 00:36:45,361
That would be
really discouraging.
688
00:36:45,363 --> 00:36:47,430
So let's hope not.
689
00:36:49,733 --> 00:36:52,001
If this is the case,
690
00:36:52,003 --> 00:36:55,538
our Universe is divided
into two worlds --
691
00:36:55,540 --> 00:36:59,676
one of matter
and one of dark matter.
692
00:37:07,785 --> 00:37:11,454
And they will always
be nothing to each other.
693
00:37:16,960 --> 00:37:20,396
Like a tennis game where
the rackets have no strings.
694
00:37:30,007 --> 00:37:34,043
The most important contribution
to the mass in the Universe
695
00:37:34,045 --> 00:37:37,246
could really
basically be nothingness.
696
00:37:39,049 --> 00:37:41,784
So nothingness would rule.
697
00:37:41,786 --> 00:37:45,054
But is there or was there
698
00:37:45,056 --> 00:37:48,624
ever such a thing
as absolute nothing?
699
00:37:48,626 --> 00:37:52,929
No energy, no matter,
no time or space.
700
00:37:52,931 --> 00:37:54,497
The answer to this question
701
00:37:54,499 --> 00:37:59,402
might reveal the ultimate origin
of our cosmos,
702
00:37:59,404 --> 00:38:03,706
and this scientific pioneer
thinks he has found it.
703
00:38:12,876 --> 00:38:14,977
Only a decade ago,
704
00:38:14,979 --> 00:38:20,449
astronomers confirmed what to
many seemed utterly impossible.
705
00:38:20,451 --> 00:38:23,986
Go back 13.7 billion years,
706
00:38:23,988 --> 00:38:26,822
and there was only darkness.
707
00:38:26,824 --> 00:38:32,961
Then our Universe
exploded into existence.
708
00:38:32,963 --> 00:38:38,200
How could everything
come from nothing?
709
00:38:40,103 --> 00:38:43,705
Gabriele Veneziano
is the father of String Theory,
710
00:38:43,707 --> 00:38:47,009
which has become one of the most
important scientific ideas
711
00:38:47,011 --> 00:38:48,810
in modern physics.
712
00:38:48,812 --> 00:38:53,515
But his latest big idea
challenges the mainstream.
713
00:38:53,517 --> 00:38:55,450
He believes the Big Bang
714
00:38:55,452 --> 00:38:59,288
could not have been
the beginning of everything.
715
00:38:59,290 --> 00:39:01,990
The conclusion
that there was nothing --
716
00:39:01,992 --> 00:39:04,526
I think it was too fast
a conclusion,
717
00:39:04,528 --> 00:39:07,396
so I don't want
to repeat the same mistake.
718
00:39:07,398 --> 00:39:10,866
Gabriele believes
that there was something
719
00:39:10,868 --> 00:39:12,868
before the Big Bang.
720
00:39:12,870 --> 00:39:15,570
But, like a city at daybreak,
721
00:39:15,572 --> 00:39:19,308
most of this pre-Universe
was fast asleep.
722
00:39:19,310 --> 00:39:23,445
There were things
propagating in space,
723
00:39:23,447 --> 00:39:26,615
like waves, particles,
724
00:39:26,617 --> 00:39:29,484
but the energy was very diluted,
725
00:39:29,486 --> 00:39:30,886
and furthermore,
726
00:39:30,888 --> 00:39:35,090
this wave or this particle
interacted very, very weakly.
727
00:39:36,693 --> 00:39:41,463
That would be like having very
few people walking in the street
728
00:39:41,465 --> 00:39:45,233
and, furthermore,
not interacting with each other.
729
00:39:45,235 --> 00:39:47,536
They may not talk to each other.
730
00:39:47,538 --> 00:39:50,806
They may not feel each other.
731
00:39:52,542 --> 00:39:54,443
Gabriele believes
732
00:39:54,445 --> 00:39:58,413
that the same fundamental
forces of nature we know today
733
00:39:58,415 --> 00:40:00,415
existed in the pre-Universe,
734
00:40:00,417 --> 00:40:02,851
but their strengths
were much lower.
735
00:40:02,853 --> 00:40:05,187
The strength of all these forces
736
00:40:05,189 --> 00:40:10,492
was given in terms
of what we call a dilaton field.
737
00:40:10,494 --> 00:40:14,629
This dilaton field
filled the entire pre-Universe
738
00:40:14,631 --> 00:40:18,033
and controlled
the strength of all the forces.
739
00:40:18,035 --> 00:40:20,902
As it gradually
dialed them all up,
740
00:40:20,904 --> 00:40:23,338
things started to happen.
741
00:40:23,340 --> 00:40:27,009
As time goes on, the density
of people is increasing.
742
00:40:27,011 --> 00:40:28,310
As a result,
743
00:40:28,312 --> 00:40:32,280
the interactions are getting
stronger and stronger.
744
00:40:32,282 --> 00:40:36,585
So, you see people getting
together, talking together,
745
00:40:36,587 --> 00:40:40,922
making clusters of people
together.
746
00:40:40,924 --> 00:40:44,026
The ever-growing
pressure increases
747
00:40:44,028 --> 00:40:48,930
and the interactions
intensify until...
748
00:40:48,932 --> 00:40:50,165
Things blow up.
749
00:40:57,173 --> 00:40:58,607
For Gabriele,
750
00:40:58,609 --> 00:41:01,176
the Big Bang
was not a sudden beginning,
751
00:41:01,178 --> 00:41:02,844
but rather a tipping point.
752
00:41:02,846 --> 00:41:04,913
If he is right,
753
00:41:04,915 --> 00:41:08,884
he will have dispensed
its most puzzling paradox --
754
00:41:08,886 --> 00:41:12,320
getting something from nothing.
755
00:41:12,322 --> 00:41:15,624
Proving there was never
nothing in the Universe
756
00:41:15,626 --> 00:41:18,360
may not be as difficult
as you think.
757
00:41:18,362 --> 00:41:21,830
Because if space and matter
have always existed,
758
00:41:21,832 --> 00:41:24,866
the Big Bang should have sent
colossal gravitational waves
759
00:41:24,868 --> 00:41:26,768
rippling through them,
760
00:41:26,770 --> 00:41:29,271
and the aftershock
of those waves
761
00:41:29,273 --> 00:41:32,874
may still be detectable today.
762
00:41:36,145 --> 00:41:38,747
If we could see
gravitational waves,
763
00:41:38,749 --> 00:41:42,951
we could go back much,
much earlier,
764
00:41:42,953 --> 00:41:45,954
ideally very, very close
with the Big Bang.
765
00:41:45,956 --> 00:41:49,157
Or if there was something
before the Big Bang,
766
00:41:49,159 --> 00:41:52,194
we can even go back
to looking at the Universe
767
00:41:52,196 --> 00:41:53,795
before the Big Bang.
768
00:41:53,797 --> 00:41:58,567
If gravitational waves left over
from the pre-Universe exist,
769
00:41:58,569 --> 00:42:00,469
they should be ever so slightly
770
00:42:00,471 --> 00:42:04,306
stretching and squashing
the spaces around us.
771
00:42:04,308 --> 00:42:06,074
Engineers from around the world
772
00:42:06,076 --> 00:42:08,877
are submitting designs
for a new spacecraft
773
00:42:08,879 --> 00:42:11,813
sensitive enough
to detect these distortions.
774
00:42:11,815 --> 00:42:16,551
The important thing is that
there are experimental ways
775
00:42:16,553 --> 00:42:18,920
to talk about these things.
776
00:42:18,922 --> 00:42:22,023
I mean, they're not
just pure science fiction.
777
00:42:22,025 --> 00:42:24,893
I mean, you can put this model
to a test.
778
00:42:24,895 --> 00:42:27,195
Gabriele's mission
779
00:42:27,197 --> 00:42:31,500
to prove that nothing
does not exist and never did
780
00:42:31,502 --> 00:42:34,302
may be on the verge of success.
781
00:42:35,905 --> 00:42:38,073
The ancient Greeks
thought of nothing
782
00:42:38,075 --> 00:42:41,476
as a logical impossibility.
783
00:42:41,478 --> 00:42:45,947
The moment you think about
nothing, it becomes something.
784
00:42:45,949 --> 00:42:48,750
Modern scientists
have spent centuries
785
00:42:48,752 --> 00:42:51,186
thinking about nothing,
786
00:42:51,188 --> 00:42:55,390
and what they've learned
proved the greeks were right.
787
00:42:55,392 --> 00:42:56,858
There may be enough energy
788
00:42:56,860 --> 00:42:59,995
rippling through nothingness
to destroy us,
789
00:42:59,997 --> 00:43:03,065
entire Universes
may be made of it,
790
00:43:03,067 --> 00:43:08,270
And it is most definitely
not nothing.
791
00:43:08,303 --> 00:43:12,303
== sync, corrected by elderman ==